Who Are the People of God? Abraham’s Offspring, Israel & Christ

Contemporary theological—and even political—debates often center on the relationship between national Israel and the church. While vital, these discussions belong to a much broader motif: the identity and development of the people of God across Scripture. Biblical theology traces this overarching theme across redemptive history, revealing how God forms, redeems, and dwells with his covenant community throughout the narrative of Scripture.¹

In this article, we will trace how this central theme unfolds, moving from Adam and creation to Abraham and his promised offspring, through the nation of Israel and its Davidic hope, to its culmination in Christ and his church.

The people of God from creation to Israel

Adam, multiplication, and the promised seed

In terms of historical progression, the story of the people of God and humanity begins with creation. The case can be made, however, that the theme of the people of God begins before time, when God, who is eternal, self-sufficient, and who has life and fullness in himself (aseity), decrees there will be a people, chosen by the Father, redeemed by the Son as the appointed covenant mediator, and the recipients of the applied work of Christ by the Holy Spirit. These particular people are objects of grace. The “covenant of redemption” (pactum salutis) or eternal decree (John 6:37–40; Eph 1:4–14; 2 Tim 1:9; Titus 1:2) is worked out through history as God redeems a people for himself for his own glory and pleasure.

At creation, God made mankind in his own image and likeness, signifying their intrinsic value and their representative role over creation as royal sons and daughters. Adam is made to have dominion over the created order, and he is to extend the boundaries of the garden—God’s presence, rule, glory—to the ends of the earth.

Adam is the son of God (Luke 3:38; Gen 5:1–3), and it is here that the seed or offspring theme begins (and takes on further development after the fall with the conflict between the seed of the woman and seed of the serpent; Gen 3:15). Associated with the theme of blessing (Gen 1:28), Adam is to be fruitful and to multiply.

Adam, as the image of God, the offspring of God, is the covenantal head of humanity and functions as a prophet, priest, and king.

• As God’s vice-regent, Adam is to extend God’s rule by subduing the earth. His royal role is exemplified by naming the animals (Gen 2:19–20; cf. Ps 8:3–6).
• As a priest, Adam is to keep and cultivate the garden of Eden (Gen 2:15; see also Num 3:7–8), serving in the garden sanctuary/temple, ministering in the presence of God.
• Adam also has a prophetic role, receiving God’s word in the form of commands and warnings in Genesis 2:16–17. Prophets share God’s word to others, and so Adam is to communicate God’s revelation to Eve and their children.

Adam and Eve’s disobedience and fall are catastrophic, rupturing their relationship with God and resulting in curses and death, including exile from Eden and from God’s presence. In a post-fall world, the seed/offspring theme now features two distinct lines: there is the seed of the woman, a people who receive God’s grace and forgiveness tied to the promised, singular “seed of the woman,” a deliverer who will undo the curse and obey God perfectly (Gen 3:15; 5:29; 22:17–18; 24:60; 49:8–12), and the seed of the serpent, a people marked by rebellion, rejecting and opposing the Lord God and his offspring.²

The image of God is marred and defaced but not lost. The aftermath of the fall reveals that faith marks the people of God as they look to the Lord and his promises (e.g., Eve in Gen 4:1; Abel in Gen 4:4; Heb 11:4).

Later Adam-like characters appear, recapitulating Adam’s role and status. The seed of the woman is a typological pattern and develops in the lives of Seth, Noah, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and eventually Israel.³ These ectypes or installments of Adam foreshadow the singular seed or last Adam, the Christ.

For example, after the flood, a form of de-creation, humanity restarts with Noah. Noah and his family live in a kind of re-creation as God sustains the creation order and structures but now in view of sin. The Noahic covenant continues the creation covenant, stressing that humans will fulfill Adam’s image-son role (Gen 9:1–17), however much Noah’s disobedience reveals he is not the seed of promise (Gen 9:18–28). Nevertheless, God’s command to Adam to “be fruitful and multiply” and his blessing to Noah is reiterated (Gen 9:1, 7; cf. Gen 1:28). God’s promises, including the seed/offspring theme, continues through Noah and his son, Shem.

Abraham and the promise of offspring

The people of God theme takes on a particular and universal outlook with Abraham and the Abrahamic covenant.

Once again, as with Adam, God blesses Abraham (Gen 12:1–3) and the calling to “fruitfulness” and “multiplication” are repeated (Gen 17:2, 6). God’s covenant with Abraham features four elements:

1. Abraham’s offspring will be innumerable as the dust of earth (Gen 13:16; 28:14) and the stars of the sky (Gen 15:5; 22:17; 26:4),
2. Abraham will become a great and special nation to God (Gen 12:2),
3. Abraham’s descendants are promised the land of Canaan (Gen 12:7; 13:15; 15:18; 17:8; 22:17; 24:7; etc.), just as Adam was given a place (the garden of Eden), and
4. Abraham and his seed are the means by which all the families or nations of the earth will be blessed (Gen 12:3; 17:4–6; 18:18; 22:18; Gal 3:8; etc.).

Once again, a defining characteristic of the people of God is faith in the Lord and his promises, just as Abraham is a man of faith (Gal 3:9).

God’s response after the judgement on the “kingdom” of man, Babel (Gen 11), is his saving initiative in Abraham. Adam’s role, the promised seed, and God’s plan for creation will be fulfilled in Abraham and his seed.

At this point in the storyline of Scripture, we observe multiple aspects to the offspring/seed of Abraham.

1. Abraham has some biological offspring who are not part of the special, natural progeny who receive the covenant promises. Ishmael and the sons of Keturah (Gen 25:1–4), for example, are physical descendants of Abraham, but not part of the special, biological offspring of promise. The Abrahamic promises, the seed theme, will pass on to Isaac, not Ishmael, and to Jacob, not Esau.
2. Abraham’s special biological offspring (through Isaac, Jacob) will become a great nation (Israel) and will inhabit the promised land (Gen 17:7; 35:12).
3. But at another level, this great nation is not an end to itself, it will be the means whereby a singular offspring/seed will come to fulfill Adam’s role, overcome the curse, and bring about true fruitfulness and blessing. The use of singular pronouns and verbs in Genesis 22:17–18 and 24:60 (cf. Gen 3:15; זֶרַע [“seed”] can function as a collective singular noun) draw attention to this special, singular, and third offspring of Abraham. This “seed” will inherit the “gates of his enemies”—a place far more expansive than the promised land of Canaan (cf. Rom 4:13; Matt 5:5; Heb 11:13–16). Moreover, this special, singular offspring of Abraham will fulfill Adam’s commission to extend God’s rule, the kingdom of God, to the ends of the earth.
4. Therefore, within the narrative of Genesis itself, the Abrahamic promises present Abraham as the head of a single nation but also look forward to him becoming the father of a multitude of nations. God’s blessings reach out to all nations and, in view of the promised seed of the woman (Gen 3:15), indicate that these blessings to the nations will be fulfilled through a singular, special offspring of Abraham (Gen 17:4–6; 49:8, 10; Ps 72:17; Isa 9:6; Gal 3:16). There is a sense then of a fourth seed as Abraham’s fatherhood encompasses people from different tribes and nations who follow in the footsteps of Abraham’s faith, who likewise depend on God’s provision for sin (Gen 22:8). Those blessed in Abraham become spiritual offspring of Abraham (Eph 2:11–21; Gal 3:26–29).

Israel as offspring of Abraham and a corporate Adam

The themes of blessing, fruitfulness, multiplication, and seed/offspring move from Adam to Noah, to Abraham, and then to Isaac and Jacob (Gen 26:2–4, 24; 28:3–4, 13–15). Notably, it is Jacob who is renamed “Israel” (Gen 32:28), and his twelve sons become the twelve tribes of Israel.

Through the exodus and the establishment of the Mosaic/Sinai covenant, the nation of Israel takes center stage. Indeed, the first stage of the Abrahamic covenant—Abraham having a great name and being made a great nation—arrives in the formation of Israel, the corporate seed of Abraham (Ps 105:6; Isa 41:8; 51:2; Jer 33:26). The people of God, first associated with the patriarchs, now takes on a national, corporate dimension.

Moreover, the nation of Israel also takes on the status and roles of Adam. Israel, like Adam, is called God’s son (Exod 4:22; Deut 14:1; Jer 31:20) and considered the children of God (Isa 1:2, 4; Hos 1:10; 11:1). The themes of blessing, fruitfulness, and multiplication move from Adam to the patriarchs and continue in and through Israel (see Gen 17:2; 28:3; 35:11; 47:27; 48:3–4; Exod 1:7; Lev 26:9; Deut 7:13; 30:9; Ps 107:38; Isa 51:2). God’s presence was manifested to Adam in the garden and similarly, but in a mediated way, God’s dwelling presence is manifested to Israel also through the mobile tabernacle and later in the Jerusalem temple. Israel is a corporate Adam.

Additionally, Adam’s original roles as prophet, priest, and king are exemplified within Israel’s leadership structure.

• Provisions are made for kings ruling over Israel (Deut 17:14–20), but in a broader sense Israel was to have dominion by subduing the promised land and ruling over her enemies.
• While the priestly class would arise from the line of Aaron, broadly Israel was to be a priestly nation, being ceremonially clean, devoted to the Lord, and possessing a holy land fit for God’s dwelling in their midst (Exod 15:15–17). Israel’s corporate calling is to be a kingdom of priests and a holy nation (Exod 19:6).
• Adam’s prophetic role is recapitulated as Israel received God’s Word and Mosaic/Sinai law-covenant to be an obedient and covenant-keeping people so that they may be a light to the nations (Deut 4:5–8; 26:16–19; 2 Kgs 19:19; Isa 37:20).

Rather than resembling the pagan nations and their wicked practices, Israel was to be separate, devoted, and holy to the Lord, demonstrating steadfast faith and love. Israel was to further distinguish themselves from the gentiles through circumcision, Sabbath, and food laws. The whole sacrificial system was to remind the people of God that without the shedding of blood there could be no forgiveness or atonement for sin. The locus of the people of God at this stage of redemptive history is the nation of Israel, and Israel will be the channel for the blessings to the nations. The fact that gentiles such as Rahab (and presumably her family; Josh 2) and Ruth (Ruth 1:16–17) became part of the nation of Israel preview the Abrahamic blessings to the nations. Ultimately, the means of resolving the problem of sin and death caused by the first Adam comes through Israel.

Ultimately, the means of resolving the problem of sin and death caused by the first Adam comes through Israel.

Through the Old Testament (OT), Israel’s benefits and privileges as the people of God are clear:⁴ They receive the oracles and covenants of God (Exod 2:23–25; 6:1–8; Rom 3:1–2; 9:4–5); Israel is God’s treasured possession (Deut 7:6) and the elect, covenant nation based solely on God’s sovereign choice (Deut 4:37; 7:7; 10:15; Jer 33:24). Israel’s covenantal relationship to God is pictured with nuptial imagery as Israel is called the wife or bride of Yahweh (Isa 54:5; Jer 2:2; 31:32). They are also his flock and the Lord is their shepherd (Ezek 34; Ps 77:20; Isa 40:11; Ps 100:3).

Yet, while Israel is called to worship God alone, to exclusively serve him as God’s servant, the nation proves repeatedly that while they may be Abraham’s natural, special offspring corporately, many Israelites are not Abraham’s offspring spiritually.

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Exile, the Davidic covenant, and Israel’s restoration

Throughout the rest of the OT, Israel fails to live up to her calling as the chosen people of God. Rebellion, idolatry, and faithlessness characterize much of Israel’s history. On the one hand, Israel did become a great nation, numbered as the stars of heaven (Deut 1:10; 10:22; 1 Chron 27:23; Neh 9:23), the sand on the sea (1 Kgs 4:20), and as the dust of the earth (2 Chron 1:9). Under Joshua’s leadership, they did occupy the promised land (Josh 11:23; 14:15; 21:43–45; 23:14–15), and to a greater degree during Solomon’s reign (1 Kgs 4:21; cf. 4:24–25). However, Israel was wayward. The book of Judges depicts Israel doing whatever was right in their own eyes. Later, during the history of the united and divided monarchies, the people of Israel continue to swerve from following Yahweh and prove to be covenant breakers and transgressors of the law.

The result was covenant curses rather than covenant blessings. On account of their brazen disregard for God and his law, Israel (Northern Kingdom) and Judah (Southern Kingdom) were handed over to the Assyrians and Babylonians. The latter exile featured the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple.

Despite Israel’s history of failure, hope remains. The Balaam oracles (Num 22–24) present Israel in language reminiscent of Eden and the exodus (Num 24:5–6) and reaffirm the Abrahamic promise of blessing and cursing (Num 24:9; 23:8; cf. Gen 12:3) and the promise of the seed/offspring (Num 23:10; cf. Gen 12:2; 13:16; 28:14). According to Balaam, the last days will feature an individual Israelite seed who will become exalted, exert universal rule, and triumph over his enemies (Num 24:7–9, 17–19; cf. Gen 12:3; 27:29; 49:9–10).

This future hope ties in with the rise of David to the throne. David and the Davidic covenant mark a significant development in the storyline of the Bible and the people of God. The Adamic themes of blessing and fruitfulness, the Abrahamic promises, the covenant obedience and loyalty that is to be reflected in the image of God, the seed who crushes the head of the serpent and brings renewal, narrow down to a Davidic son and royal representative. Scripture presents David as another Adam, an individual who embodies and represents Israel, for he also is a son of God (2 Sam 7:14), a prophet, priest, and most importantly a king who will have an everlasting dynasty.⁵ Moreover, there is a tight relationship between the Abrahamic and the Davidic covenants, as the Abrahamic promises move through the nation of Israel to this royal Davidic son, for a kingdom will be established for David’s “seed” (2 Sam 7:12; 1 Chron 17:11–14; Ps 89:3–4, 28, 36; cf. 132:10–12; Jer 33:21). The great name and nation promised to Abraham are directed through David (2 Sam 7:9; 1 Chron 17:8; cf. Gen 12:2), as are the promises of place/land (2 Sam 7:10; cf. Gen 12:7; 15:18; 17:8; Deut 11:24). Additionally, David observes that this covenant is a charter for humanity (2 Sam 7:19),⁶ indicating that a future Davidic king will mediate the blessings to the nations and establish God’s rule over the world through his obedience, and therefore fulfill Adam’s commission in the garden (cf. Ps 89:23–29; 110:1–7). A future Davidic king will be the special, singular offspring of Abraham and the seed of the woman.

Unfortunately, the Davidic kings also failed. The law-covenant held the promise of life (Lev 18:5), but the Davidic kings did not keep the law. They trusted in other gods and were captive to their own sin. Some reform efforts did occur under Davidic kings such as Asa, Hezekiah, and Josiah, but generally the kings led Israel and Judah to disobedience and idolatry.

Nevertheless, God will fulfill his purposes and promises, and through his prophetic messengers he projects hope in the aftermath of exile. Israel’s future restoration and return from exile is tied to the prophecy of the new covenant (Jer 31:29–40; Ezek 36:22–38; 37:11–28) and the coming of a faithful, true Davidic king. This messiah figure is known as the servant of the Lord, who identifies with Israel (Isa 7:14; 9:6–7; 11:1–10; 42:1–9; 49:1–13; 50:4–11; 52:13–53:12; 55:3; 61:1–3; Jer 23:5–6; 33:14–26; Ezek 34:23–24; 37:24–28; Dan 7:11–14). This coming king will ratify the new covenant and usher in God’s saving reign among the nations, providing for the full forgiveness of sins through his atoning work (Isa 52:13–53:12) and producing an obedient people who have the law written on their hearts. This future Davidic king will be anointed with the Spirit to deliver Israel and be a witness to the nations, and he will pour out the promised Holy Spirit on God’s people, another significant feature of Israel’s restoration hopes (e.g., Isa 32:15–18; 44:3–5; 59:21; Ezek 36:26–30; 37:1–14; Joel 2:28—3:3; Zech 12:10).

How are Israel’s restoration promises important for understanding the people of God? Again, there are glimpses in Israel’s history of gentiles being counted among God’s people by joining the nation of Israel and sharing Abraham’s faith (e.g., Rahab, Ruth). The eschatological vision of the Latter Prophets reveal that Israel’s future restoration is integrated with the ingathering of the nations—the incorporation of gentiles into a restored Israel, becoming part of the latter-day people of God, the new covenant community. The coming Davidic king and servant will be a light to the nations and “a covenant for the people” (Isa 42:6–7; 49:6, 8). The scope of his work includes not just a reconciled remnant from Israel but also the salvation of people among the nations. This suffering servant/Israel makes atonement for the many, bearing the transgressions of many nations (Isa 52:14; 53:11). Based on his sacrificial work, he will have spiritual offspring (Isa 53:10–11; cf. 45:25; 59:21) and generate priestly servants (Isa 54:17; cf. 61:6), among whom are covenant-faithful foreigners (Isa 56:1–8). Paul Williamson correctly observes that “gentiles in the eschaton will be considered part of true Israel (Ps 87) and faithful servants of Yahweh (Isa 56:6–7)—even in the most consecrated role imaginable: priests and Levites (see 66:20–21).”⁷ Similar hopes of gentile incorporation into the end-time people of God are expressed in other prophetic writings (see Jer 3:16–4:4; Amos 9:11–15; Mic 4:1–3; Zech 8:7–8, 20–23). Harkening back to the garden of Eden (Isa 51:2–3; Ezek 36:35, 47:1–12; Joel 2:3; Zech 14:8–11), the dwelling of God’s people in God’s place, there is prophetic hope of how the promised land will one day expand well beyond Palestine. Such is fitting for the universal rule of the Davidic son of God, for he will fulfill his mission of expanding the presence of God to the ends of the earth and will extend the Abrahamic blessings to the nations by enlarging the Abrahamic tent (cf. Gen 15:18 and Ps 72:8; Ps 72:9–17; cf. Gen 28:14 and Isa 54:1–3).

In summary, Israel as a nation is the people of God but a mixed community of believers and unbelievers. However, this chosen nation is the means that the promised “seed of the woman” (Gen 3:15), the virgin-conceived child (Isa 7:14), would come to reverse the effects of the fall and triumph over the serpent.

Jesus: last Adam, seed of Abraham, and true Israel

The story of the people of God continues in the New Testament but is now centered on the birth and arrival of the promised king. The eternal Son of God takes on a full humanity, becoming the incarnate Lord, Immanuel (“God with us”). Jesus is the king of the Jews (Mic 5:2; Mark 15:2, 9, 12) and Lord over all. Jesus is the royal deliverer of and through Israel, the seed of the woman who saves his people from their sins (Matt 1:21). The return from exile, the new exodus, and the new covenant promises all arrive with the coming of Christ.

Further, notice how the themes associated with the people of God, the nation of Israel, come to fruition and fulfillment in Jesus.

1. Jesus is the last Adam, the first man of the new creation

In Adam all are cursed and die, but under Christ’s covenant headship is life, grace, justification, righteousness, and new creation (Rom 5:12–21; 1 Cor 15:21–23, 45). Adam had failed to take dominion, but Jesus is the eschatological Son of Man (Dan 7:13–14) and he inaugurates the kingdom of God and takes dominion through his suffering, death, and ascension (cf. Dan 7:14, 27 and Matt 26:64; 28:18–20; John 1:51; 12:23; Acts 7:55–56). In Jesus we have the true image of God (Col 1:15; Heb 2:5–18). In Jesus we see what true humanity is supposed to be: loving God and loving neighbor, exemplifying faithfulness and obedience to God, exuding true worship of God in every way, and living without sin.

2. Jesus is the true singular offspring/seed of Abraham

He fulfills the Abrahamic covenant (Gal 3–4; esp. 3:13–18, 22; Acts 3:25–26; Rom 4:13–17; cf. John 8:56, 58). Luke presents the birth of Jesus as the fulfillment of God’s promises to Abraham (Luke 1:54–55, 72–73). The promises of offspring, land, and blessings to the nations come about in Jesus. Abraham’s family and true children, the genuine people of God, are those in union with Christ (Rom 2:25–29; 4:9–22; Gal 3:6–9, 26–29; Heb 2:14–18). The promised land comes over in the NT in themes of inheritance and a new heaven and earth, but even here the promise hinges on the person and work of Christ (Gal 3:18; Rom 4:13; Matt 5:5; Heb 4:1–11; 11:8–16; 1 Pet 1:4; Eph 1:11; 6:3).

3. Jesus is the true Israel who fulfills the role, calling, and vocation of national Israel

Israel, as another Adam, is God’s son (Exod 4:22), and yet Israel’s sonship and exodus point forward typologically. For example, Matthew 2:15 cites Hosea 11:1 to show that Jesus is the true son of Israel and that the return from exile commences in his own exodus from Egypt. Moreover, Jesus embodies Israel as the “beloved son” in his baptism and reception of the Holy Spirit (Matt 3:15–17; Luke 3:21–22). The temptation narrative (Matt 4:1–11) also signifies that Jesus is the obedient son and representative of Israel, for he rebuffs Satan’s temptations, successively recapitulating Israel’s wilderness wanderings. Israel is God’s “firstborn son,” echoing Isaac’s status over his older brother Ishmael, but this anticipates Jesus, the true Israelite to whom the status of “firstborn of all creation” and “firstborn from the dead” belongs (Col 1:15, 18).

The Isaianic servant, discussed above, who is called “Israel” and yet restores Israel, who proclaims justice and freedom from sin, and who is a light to the nations, is none other than Jesus Christ. The pattern of servanthood, stretching from Moses to David, characterizing Israel and in general the people of God, is now fulfilled in Jesus (Acts 3:13, 26; 4:27, 30; cf. Luke 1:69; Heb 3:5–6). Jesus is the light to the nations (Luke 2:32; Acts 26:23), the one who releases captives and proclaims good news (Luke 4:16–21; cf. Isa 61:1–2; 58:6). Jesus is the suffering servant and fulfills the servant’s (Israel’s) mission by his atoning death (Isa 53; cf. John 1:29; Rom 4:23–25; 8:32; Gal 1:4; 1 Pet 1:19; Heb 5:5–10; 7:12–8:12).

Jesus is the ultimate prophet, priest, and king, which look back to Israel and Adam.

• As the Word and final disclosure of God, Jesus is the ultimate prophet (John 1:1–18; Heb 1:1–3).
• Tied to his role as the suffering servant, Jesus is the great high priest, the fulfillment of the temple (Matt 12:6; John 2:19–22; 4:20–24; Heb 10:19–22), and through his work on the cross he brings to an end the Passover, the sacrificial system, and the Levitical priesthood (e.g., 1 Cor 5:7; John 1:29, 36; 19:36; 1 Pet 1:19; Heb 5:5–10; 7:12–8:6; 9:1–10:22).
• The Davidic covenant climaxes in Jesus. The kingdom of God arrives in Jesus’s ministry and, via his death and resurrection, Jesus is now seated as the Davidic king, enthroned upon his ascension (Luke 1:31–33; Acts 2:32–36; Eph 1:9–10; Phil 2:9–11; cf. Ps 2 in Acts 4:25–26; 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5; note also Rom 1:3–4).

Jesus is also the true vine, unlike the fruitless vine of Israel (John 15:1–6; Ps 80:8–18). The end times project a healthy, fertile vine (Jer 31:5; 32:15; Hos 14:4–9) tied to Israel’s restoration hopes that will spring up through a royal, messianic figure or “Son of Man” (see Ps 80:8, 14, 15, 17). Jesus is the Messiah, but he is also the vine (John 15), representing Israel, and truly produces fruit-bearing branches. The theme of fruitfulness continues, and that fruit can only come if one abides in Christ (John 15:5).

4. Christ fulfills all the biblical covenants

Jesus is the last Adam and first man of the new creation, which goes back to the creation and the Noahic covenants, and explains how Jesus fulfills the Abrahamic and Davidic covenants. But Israel’s national covenant (Mosaic or Sinaitic) is also fulfilled in Christ (Matt 5:17–20). Through his obedience and priestly work (see Heb 7:11–12), the law-covenant reaches it goal and end (Rom 10:4; 1 Cor 9:20–21; Gal 3:15–4:7). Furthermore, the new covenant prophecies are crucial for Israel’s restoration and the hope of a transformed people of God. Jesus ratifies the new covenant through his atoning sacrifice (Matt 26:28; Mark 14:24; Luke 22:20; Rom 11:27; 1 Cor 11:25; Heb 7:22; 8:6–13; 9:15–18; 10:15–22). The coming of the Holy Spirit, a new covenant prophecy to Israel (Ezek 36:27; 37:14; Zech 4:6; Joel 2:28–32) is fulfilled when Jesus pours out the Spirit on his people (Luke 3:16–17; John 7:28–39; 20:21–23; Acts 2; 10:44–48; Gal 3:1–6; Eph 1:13–14). The new covenant people of God are now sealed and indwelled by the Holy Spirit in a way that the OT saints were not.

The church: the new covenant people of God

How are we to understand the people of God in light of the coming of Christ? While the OT culminates in Christ, the story of the people of God continues and takes shape for both Jews and gentiles. Jesus establishes his church comprised of all those who are his followers and disciples, a people united to him by faith.

The coming of Christ marks a significant shift in redemptive history as the church is the end-time people of God (1 Cor 10:11), the heavenly, Spirit-empowered, new covenant community (Eph 2:5–6; Col 1:12–14; Heb 12:22–24). The church is God’s new creation (2 Cor 5:17; Gal 6:15) and new humanity in Christ (Eph 2:15).⁸ The church is multiethnic and transnational, unlike Israel of the OT, and while some in Israel were not truly spiritual offspring of Abraham, every new covenant believer has the law written on the heart. The church, then, is not equivalent to Israel, but indirectly related to Israel and recipients of Israel’s Old Testament promises and hopes through Jesus.

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The NT unpacks the new covenant people of God in a variety of ways.

1. The twelve disciples symbolize the twelve tribes of Israel and represent the remnant, the renewed Israel reconstituted around Jesus

Jesus’s selection of twelve disciples is not arbitrary. These twelve apostles are sent to the lost sheep of Israel (Matt 10:5–15). The gospel goes out to national Israel. Jewish people first. In the missionary activity in the book of Acts, with Pentecost and the coming of the Spirit, the disciples’ gospel proclamation moves from Jerusalem to Judea and Samaria, indicating the restoration and reconstitution of geographical Israel (cf. Acts 8:1–25), and then proceeds to the outcasts (Acts 8:26–40; cf. Isa 56:3, 5) and the gentiles (Acts 10). The kingdom of God has arrived in Jesus, and kingdom citizens are being formed by those who receive and embrace Christ, whether Jew or gentile.

2. Many of the descriptions and characteristics of OT Israel are now applied to the church

But the comparison is not in a one-to-one fashion or in a manner of simple replacement. An escalation has occurred with the people of God, and this fact is all bound up with the coming of Christ.

• Israel is the “assembly” of the Lord in the OT (Deut 4:10; 9:10; 1 Chron 28:8), and this term is applied to the church in Christ (Matt 16:18; 1 Cor 11:18).
• Israel is the flock and sheep of Yahweh, but with Jesus, he is the good shepherd (John 10) who lays down his life for his sheep, his followers (John 10:11, 14–16). The OT prophecy of a new David coming to shepherd and rescue the flock (Ezek 34:10–16, 23–25) has come to pass and consists of a messianic, multiethnic flock (John 10:16, 26).
• Israel was the bride of Yahweh (Jer 2:2; Hos 2:14–20), but now in Christ, the church is the Lord’s bride (2 Cor 11:2; Eph 5:32) through union with Christ.
• Israel went through the exodus but the church is the people of the new exodus. For example, 1 Peter 2 applies Exodus 19:6 to the church. According to Peter, through the new exodus in Christ (Isa 43:20–21; Hos 2:15, 23; cf. Exod 19:1–6), the church is the fulfillment of OT Israel in being the elect race, holy nation, and the people (1 Pet 2:9–10; cf. Deut 4:20; 14:2; Heb 2:7; 4:9) set aside for God’s special possession. The church is now God’s people (1 Pet 2:10) because of their faith-union with the eschatological cornerstone that has been laid in Zion (Ps 2:6), Jesus Christ.⁹

3. The church has a new identity, nature, and newness through Jesus

As the new covenant community, the church is a transformed people, possessing the Holy Spirit, and is now, in Christ, constituted as Abraham’s spiritual seed by exercising a faith like Abraham’s (Gal 3–4; Rom 4). As those indwelled by the Spirit, the theme of fruitfulness now continues in the church as Christians bear the fruit of the Spirit (Gal 5:22–24; cf. Col 1:10; John 15:16). Further, while OT Israel had the temple, the church is God’s new temple in Christ (1 Cor 6:19; 2 Cor 6:16; Eph 2:21–22; 1 Pet 2:5) and through Christ, they have direct access to the Father as they are already citizens of the heavenly city-temple (Eph 2:18, 19; cf. Phil 3:20; Gal 4:26). The church is the “Israel of God” (Gal 6:16) because they are the people of the new creation (Gal 6:15; 2 Cor 5:17). Therefore, not only is the church the recipient of God’s promises through his grace, but the church is the people of God that remains forever (Rev 21–22). The influx of the nations and their wealth to Israel’s temple is fulfilled (Rev 21:24–26) in the end in the heavenly city where God dwells. Through Christ, the people of God enjoy the tree of life with its fruit, dwelling in the presence of God and the Lamb where death has no place (Rev 22:1–5) and the curse is no more.

Conclusion

The structure of biblical revelation through the unfolding covenants constrains us to see the theme of God’s people moving from Adam and the patriarchs to Israel and finally culminating in Christ and the church. The centrality of Christ is crucial as he shows us with his perfect and sinless life what true humanity is in his worship, devotion, and obedience to the Lord. Israel’s identity, role, and vocation are recapitulated in him. The typological persons, events, and institutions—such as Adam, the seed theme, the nation of Israel, David, the exodus—all find fulfillment in Christ and derivatively in the new covenant community, the people united to Christ by the cross, the church. Those in Christ are children of God through faith, born of God (John 1:12–13), and these saints are more than conquerors through Christ, for nothing can separate them from the love of God in Christ Jesus (Rom 8:37–39).

Share your thoughts

How would you explain the theme of the people of God in Scripture? Join us in the Word by Word group to share your thoughts.

Brent Parker’s suggested resources for further study

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1. See Benjamin L. Gladd, From Adam and Israel to the Church: A Biblical Theology of the People of God, Essential Studies in Biblical Theology (InterVarsity, 2019); Jason S. DeRouchie, “What Is a Biblical Theology of the People of God?,” in 40 Questions About Biblical Theology, ed. Jason S. DeRouchie, Oren R. Martin, Andrew David Naselli (Kregel, 2020), 235–43; and Paul Williamson, “Jews and Gentiles,” in Dictionary of the New Testament Use of the Old Testament, ed. G. K. Beale, D. A. Carson, Benjamin L. Gladd, and Andrew David Naselli (Baker Academic, 2023), 382–85.
2. James Hamilton, “The Skull-Crushing Seed of the Woman: Inner-Biblical Interpretation of Genesis 3:15,” Southern Baptist Journal of Theology 10 (2006): 30–54.
3. James M. Hamilton Jr., Typology: Understanding the Bible’s Promise-Shaped Patterns; How Old Testament Expectations Are Fulfilled in Christ (Zondervan, 2022), 35–62.
4. See further, Brent E. Parker, Christ Jesus, the True Israel: Progressive Covenantalism on Israel, Christ, and the Church (Wipf & Stock, 2024), 164–65.
5. David exhibits priestly activities when the ark is brought to Jerusalem and sacrifices are made (2 Sam 6:14, 17–18; cf. 8:18). His prophetic activity is seen, for example, in 2 Sam 23:1–7 and Ps 22; cf. Acts 2:30.
6. Note Walter C. Kaiser Jr., “The Blessing of David: The Charter for Humanity,” in The Law and the Prophets: Old Testament Studies Prepared in Honor of Oswald Thompson Allis, ed. John H. Skilton (P&R, 1974), 298–318, esp. 310–15, and Peter J. Gentry and Stephen J. Wellum, Kingdom Through Covenant: A Biblical-Theological Understanding of the Covenants, 2nd ed. (Crossway, 2018), 456–58, 701.
7. Williamson, “Jews and Gentiles,” 383.
8. Stephen J. Wellum, “Beyond Mere Ecclesiology: The Church as God’s New Covenant Community,” in The Community of Jesus: A Theology of the Church, ed. Kendell H. Easley and Christopher W. Morgan (B&H, 2013), 183–212.
9. Brent E. Parker, “The Church as the Renewed Israel in Christ: A Study of 1 Peter 2:4–10,” Southern Baptist Journal of Theology 21 (2017): 41–52.