The Targums

What are the Targums (or Targumim)?

The word 'Targum' simply means 'translation' or 'interpretation', but while any translation might call itself a 'targum', the word is usually reserved for ancient Aramaic translations of the Hebrew scriptures. The need for Aramaic translations of scripture was keenly felt as Hebrew declined in popular use during the Second Temple Period; one tradition ascribes the first targum to Ezra himself. In the earliest days, targumim were not written down, but were likely informal translations made 'on the fly' after the Hebrew scriptures were read in the synagogues. Targum fragments found in the Dead Sea Scrolls indicate that use of written targumim can be dated to pre-Christian times, and eventually two of these written Targumim, Targum Onqelos on the Pentateuch*, and Targum Jonathan on the Prophets*, gained official status, and were specifically designated for use in synagogue services. In addition to these two official Targumim, there are several targumim covering various books of the Writings* and other, competing Targums to the Pentateuch that never gained any official status - indeed every book but Ezra-Nehemiah and Daniel (which were partially written in Aramaic to begin with) has at least one extant Targum.

Why are the Targums Important?

The Targums are important source documents that can be compared with the Septuagint in terms of their significance for doing text criticism, understanding the history of biblical interpretation, and studying the New Testament use of Hebrew scriptures.

While precise dating of the individual Targumim can be problematic, many of the Targumim we have come from the first seven centuries of this era**, and some of the fragments, such as those found at Qumran, may well be older still. As such, the Targumim function as important early witnesses to the text of Hebrew scriptures.  The Targums are commonly cited in the critical apparatus of the Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia, as well as commentaries and other books concerned with establishing the oldest text of the bible. (More information on critical apparatuses, including the first electronic edition of the BHS critical apparatus which cites the Targumim, can be found on the SESB page.)

Moreso than any other ancient translations, the Targums were interested in explaining the text to the hearer, rather than merely rendering a word-for-word translation. The extent of the explanatory comments varies from targum to targum. Targum Onqelos and Jonathan are fairly literal renditions (though the number of explanations increase in some of the more difficult, or poetic sections), while others, such as the Targum on Song of Songs, contain a tremendous number of explanatory comments. Many of these Targumim were used not only by later rabbinical writers, but by Christian theologians as well, making these documents important for the history of interpretation of the passages they comment on, both as snapshots of what was being taught in early Jewish communities and as sources for later theological work.

Scholars have long noted that when the New Testament authors quote the Hebrew scriptures, they are frequently not following the Masoretic text (the Hebrew text tradition used most often today). Sometimes the text of the citations more closely follows the Septuagint, the early Greek translation, or is of a mixed type, falling somewhere between the Septuagint and the Masoretic text.  In other places, a free paraphrase is used. With the discovery of the older Targum fragments, such as those found at Qumran and in the Cairo Genizah collection, many scholars are now reassessing these New Testament quotations in light of the Targumim and finding some close parallels.

Logos Software for the Study of the Targums

Logos offers a Libronix Digital Library System edition of the Targums from the files of the Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon Project from the Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati, Ohio. This is a comprehensive collection of Targums in Aramaic, with links to lexical entries from the Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon.

In addition, the two Dead Sea Scrolls editions published by Logos each contain three targum fragments, 4QtgLev, 4QtgJob, and 11QtgJob. (4QtgLev is not included in the CAL collection, because the CAL editors consider this to be some other sort of liturgical text, rather than a genuine targum. 4QgJob and 11QTgJob are included in the CAL collection.) More information on Logos software for the study of the Dead Sea Scrolls, including these fragments, can be found at this link.

Greenspahn's An Introduction to Aramaic includes a chapter introducing the Aramaic of the Targums.

Other references that may be of interest to students of the Targums include the Stuttgart Electronic Study Bible, which includes the critical apparatus to the Hebrew bible, which often cites the Targums and other early versions, and the International Critical Commentary Series. Some of the ICC volumes, especially Paton's commentary on Esther, have copious citations and translations from the Targums.

Notes:

*The Hebrew order of books, or canonical order, differs from the Christian orders. In the Hebrew canonical order, the bible is divided into three sections, the Law (Heb. Torah, Gr. Pentateuch - Genesis-Deuteronomy), the Prophets (Heb. Nevim - Joshua, Judges, 1&2 Samuel, 1&2 Kings, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the 12 minor prophets), and the Writings (Heb. Kethuvim - Psalms, Job, Probervs, Ruth, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, and 1&2Chronicles).

**Many of the actual manuscripts date from the Middle Ages, but scholars attempt to assign dates to when the text of a Targum was established, rather than just dating a manuscript that is a copy of a copy of a copy, etc.